Injecting drug use (IDU) is highly prevalent and is associated with a large number of specific physical complications. These problems are related to the toxicity of the substances, their mode of consumption and as a consequence of the drug taking lifestyle. Local and systemic complications of IDU are associated with considerable morbidity and mortality. Hepatitis B and C viral infections are common among drug users due to sharing of both needles and other drug taking paraphernalia. HIV infection among injecting drug users has added to the existing burden. Hence, intravenous drug users need comprehensive assessment and evaluation before treatment.
Warner EA, Kosten TR, O'Connor PG. Pharmacotherapy for opioid and cocaine abuse. Med Clin N Am 1997; 81: 909-925
Stein MD. Medical complications of intravenous drug use. J Gen Int Med 1990; 5: 249-257
Gerstein DR, Harwood HJ. Treating Drug Problems, vol. 1. Washington, DC: National Academy Press; 1990
Rhodes T, Briggs D, Kimber J, Jones S, Holloway G. Crack-heroin speedball injection and its implications for vein care: qualitative study. Addiction 2007; 102: 1782-1790
Woodburn KR, Murie JA. Vascular complications of injecting drug misuse. Br J Surg 1996; 83:1329-1334
Del Giudice P. Cutaneous complications of intravenous drug abuse. Br J Dermatol 2004; 150: 1-10
Lloyd-Smith E, Kerr T, Hogg RS, Li K, Montaner JSG, Wood E. Prevalence and correlates of abscesses among a cohort of injection drug users. Harm Reduct J 2005; 2: 24
Morrison A, Elliott L, Gruer L. Injecting-related harm and treatmentseeking behaviour among injecting drug users. Addiction 1997; 92: 1349-1352
Palepu A, Tyndall M, Leon H, Muller J, O'Shaughnessy M, Schechter M, et al. Hospital utilization and costs in a cohort of injection drug users. CMAJ 2001; 165: 415-420
Contoreggi C, Rexroad VE, Lange WR. Current management of infectious complications in the injecting drug user. J Subst Abuse Treat 1998; 15: 95-106
Crossley M. Temperate pyomyositis in an injecting drug misuse: A difficult diagnosis in a difficult patient. Emerg Med 2003; 20: 299–300
Lowy FD, Miller M. New methods to investigate infectious disease transmission and pathogenesis - Staphylococcus aureus disease in drug users. The Lancet (Infect. Dis.) 2002; 2: 605-612
Murphy E, De Vita D, Liu H, Vittinghoff E, Leung P, Ciccarone DH, et al. Risk factors for skin and soft tissue abscesses among injection drug users: a case control study. Clin Infect Dis 2001;33: 35-40
Kerr T, Wood E, Grafstein E, Ishida T, Shannon K, Lai C, et al. High Rates of Primary Care and Emergency Department use among injection drug users in Vancouver. J Public Health 2005; 27: 62-66.
Dwyer R, Topp L, Maher L, Power R, Hellard M, Walsh N, et al. Prevalences and correlates of non-viral injecting-related injuries and diseases in a convenience sample of Australian injecting drug user. Drug Alcohol Depend 2009; 100: 9-16
Salmon AM, Dwyer R, Jauncey M, van Beek I, Topp L, Maher L. Injecting-related injury and disease among clients of a supervised injecting facility. Drug Alcohol Depend 2009; 101: 132-136
Binswanger IA, Kral AH, Bluthenthal RN, Rybold DJ, Edlin BR, et al. High prevalence of abscesses and cellulitis among communityrecruited injection drug users in San Francisco. Clin Infect Dis 2000; 30: 579-581
Vlahov D, Sullivan M, Astemborski J, Nelson KE, et al. Bacterial infections and skin cleaning prior to injection among intravenous drug users. Public Health Rep 1992; 107:595-598
Makower RM, Pennycook AG, Moulton C. Intravenous drug abusers attending an inner city accident and emergency department. Arch Emerg Med 1992; 9: 32-39
Stone HD, Appel RG. Human immunodeficiency virus-associated nephropathy: current concepts. Am J Med Sci 1994; 307: 212-217
Chen JL, Fullerton KE, Flynn NM. Necrotizing fasciitis associated with injection drug use. Clin Infect Dis 2001; 33: 6-15
Murphy EL, De Vita D, Liu H, Vittinghoff E, Leung P, Ciccarone DH, et al. Risk factors for skin and soft-tissue abscesses among injection drug users: a case-control study. Clin Infect Dis 2001; 33: 35-40
Passaro DJ, Werner SB, McGee J, Mac Kenzie WR, Vugia DJ, et al. Wound botulism associated with black tar heroin among injecting drug users. JAMA 1998; 279: 859-863
Spijkerman U, van Ameijden EJ, Mientjes GH, Coutinho RA, van den Hoek A, et al. Human immunodeficiency virus infection and other risk factors for skin abscesses and endocarditis among injection drug users. J Clin Epidemiol 1996; 49: 1149-1154
Rich JD, Dickinson BP, Flanigan TP, Valone SE, et al. Abscess related to anabolic-androgenic steroid injection. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1999; 31: 207-209
Takahashi TA, Merrill JO, Boyko EJ, Bradley KA, et al. Type and location of injection drug use-related soft tissue infections predict hospitalization. J Urban Health 2003; 80: 127-136 56
Darke S, Ross J, Kaye S. Physical injecting sites among injecting drug users in Sydney, Australia. Drug Alcohol Depend 2001; 62: 77-82
Bhateja G, Subodh BN, Grover S, Basu D. Cutaneous complications with parenteral pentazocine dependence. German J Psychiatry 2006; 9: 53-56
Goyal V, Chawla JM, Balhara YP, Shukla G, Singh S, Behari M. Calcific myofibrosis due to pentazocine abuse: a case report. J Med Case Reports 2008; 2: 160
Das CP, Thussu A, Prabhakar S, Banerjee AK. Pentazocine induced fibromyositis and contracture. Postgrad Med J 1999; 75: 361-362
Summanen PH, McTeague M, Bennion R, McTeague M, Bennion R, Thompson JE Jr, et al. Bacteriology of skin and soft-tissue infections: comparison of infections in intravenous drug users and individuals with no history of intravenous drug use. Clin Infect Dis 1995;20:S279-S282
Ringertz SH, Hoiby EA, Jensenius M, Maehlen J, Caugant DA, Myklebust A, et al. Injectional anthrax in a heroin skin-popper. Lancet 2000;356: 1574-1575
From the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Tetanus among injecting-drug users - California, 1997. JAMA 1998; 279: 987
Update: Clostridium novyi and unexplained illness among injecting-drug users - Scotland, Ireland, and England, April-June 2000. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 2000; 49: 543-545
Tunkel AR, Pradhan SK. Central nervous system infections in injection drug users. Infect Dis Clin N Am 2002; 16: 589-605
Werner SB, Passaro D, McGee J, Schechter R, Vugia DJ, et al. Wound botulism in California, 1951-1998: recent epidemic in heroin injectors. Clin Infect Dis 2000; 31: 1018-1024
Shapiro RL, Hatheway C, Swerdlow DL. Botulism in the United States: a clinical and epidemiologic review. Ann Intern Med 1998; 129: 221-228
Weber M, Diener HC, Voit T, Neuen-Jacob E. Focal myopathy induced by chronic heroin injection is reversible. Muscle Nerve 2000; 23: 274-277
Hill MD, Cooper PW, Perry JR. Chasing the dragon - neurological toxicity associated with inhalation of heroin vapour: case report. CMAJ 2000; 162: 236-238
Klockgether T, Weller M, Haarmeier T, Kaskas B, Maier G, Dichgans J, et al. Gluteal compartment syndrome due to rhabdomyolysis after heroin abuse. Neurology 1997; 48: 275–276
McEvoy AW, Kitchen ND, Thomas DG. Intracerebral haemorrhage and drug abuse in young adults. Br J Neurosurg 2000; 14: 449-454
McEvoy AW, Kitchen ND, Thomas DG. Lesson of the week: intracerebral haemorrhage in young adults: the emerging importance of drug misuse. BMJ 2000; 320: 1322-1324
Roberts R, Slavis CM. Endocarditis in intravenous drug abusers. Emerg Med Clin N Am 1990; 8: 665-681
Sheagren JN. Endocarditis complicating parenteral drug abuse. In: Remington JS, Swartz MN, editors. Current clinical topics in infectious diseases. New York (NY): McGraw-Hill; 1981. p. 211–33
Levine DP, Crane LR, Zervos MJ. Bacteremia in narcotic addicts at the Detroit Medical Center. II. Infectious endocarditis: a prospective comparative study. Rev Infect Dis 1986; 8: 374-396
Baddour LM. Twelve-year review of recurrent native-valve infective endocarditis: a disease of the modem antibiotic era. Rev Infect Dis 1988; 10:1163-1170
Chambers HF, Morris DL, Tauber MG, Modin G. Cocaine use and the risk for endocarditis in intravenous drug users. Ann Intern Med 1987; 106: 833-836
Selwyn PA, Alcabes P, Hartel D, Buono D, Schoenbaum EE, Klein RS, et al. Clinical manifestations and predictors of disease progression in drug users with human immunodeficiency virus infection. N Engl J Med 1992; 327: 1697-1703
Manoff, Vlahov D, Herskowitz A, Buono D, Schoenbaum EE, Klein RS, et al. Human immunodeficiency virus infection and infective endocarditis among injecting drug users. Epidemiology 1996; 7: 566-570
Wilson LE, Thomas DL, Astemborski J, Freedman TL, Vlahov D, et al. Prospective study of infective endocarditis among injection drug users. J Infect Dis 2002; 185: 1761-1766
Frontera JA, Gradon JD. Right-side endocarditis in injection drug users: review of proposed mechanisms of pathogenesis. Clin Infect Dis 2000; 30: 374-379
Lange M, Salaki JS, Middleton JR, Sen P, Kapila R, Gocke M, et al. Infective endocarditis in heroin addicts: Epidemiological observations and some unusual cases. Am Heart J 1978; 96: 144-152
Lentnek AL, Giger 0, O'Rourke E. Group A betahemolytic streptococcal bacteremia and intravenous substance abuse: a growing clinical problem? Arch Int Med 1990; 150: 89-93
Reyes MP, Palutke WA, Wylin RF, Lerner AM. Pseudomonas endocarditis in the Detroit Medical Center 1969-1972. Medicine 1973; 52: 173-194
Tuazon CU, Sheargen JN. Increased rate of carriage of Staphylococcus aureus among narcotic addicts. J Infect Dis 1974; 129: 725-727
Olopoenia LA, Mody V, Reynolds M. Eikenella corrodens endocarditis in an intravenous drug user: case report and literature review. J Natl Med Assoc 1994; 86: 313-315
Valenzuela GA, Davis TD, Pizzani E, McGroarty D, et al. Infective endocarditis due to Neisseria sicca and associated with intravenous drug abuse. South Med J 1992; 85: 929
Corzo JE, de Leo'n FL, Go'mez-Mateos J. Pneumothorax secondary to septic pulmonary emboli in tricuspid endocarditis. Thorax 1992; 47:1080-1081
Chambers HF, Korzeniowski OM, Sande MA. Staphylococcus aureus endocarditis: clinical manifestations in addicts and nonaddicts. Medicine (Baltimore) 1983; 62:170-177
Sapico FL, Liquete JA, Sarma RJ. Bone and joint infections in patients with infective endocarditis: review of a 4-year experience. Clin Infect Dis 1996; 22: 783-787
Siegel AJ, Mendelson JH, Sholar MB, McDonald JC, Lewandrowski KB, Lewandrowski EL, et al. Effect of cocaine usage on C-reactive protein, von Willebrand factor, and fibrinogen. Am J Cardiol 2002; 89: 1133-1135
Kloner RA, Rezkalla SH. Cocaine and the heart. N Engl J Med 2003;348:487-488
Mittleman MA, Mintzer D, Maclure M, Tofler GH, Sherwood JB, Muller JE, et al. Triggering of myocardial infarction by cocaine. Circulation 1999; 99: 2737-2741
Qureshi Al, Suri MF, Guterman LR, Hopkins LN. Cocaine use and the likelihood of nonfatal myocardial infarction and stroke: data from the Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey. Circulation 2001; 103: 502-506
Bizzarri F, Mondillo S, Guerrini F, Barbati R, Frati G, Davoli G. et al. Spontaneous acute coronary dissection after cocaine abuse in a young woman. Can J Cardiol 2003; 19: 297-299.
Hsue PY, Salinas CL, Bolger AF, Benowitz NL, Waters DD. Acute aortic dissection related to crack cocaine. Circulation 2002;
Eagle KA, Isselbacher EM, DeSanctis RW. Cocaine-related aortic dissection in perspective. Circulation 2002; 105: 1529-1530
Steinhauer JR, Caulfield JB. Spontaneous coronary artery dissection associated with cocaine use: a case report and brief review. Cardiovasc Pathol 2001; 10:141-145
Castro VJ, Nacht R. Cocaine-induced bradyarrhythmia: an unsuspected cause of syncope. Chest 2000; 117: 275-277
Chakko S. Arrhythmias associated with cocaine abuse. Card Electrophysiol Rev 2002; 6: 168-169
Khan IA. Long QT syndrome: diagnosis and management. Am Heart J 2002; 143: 7-14
Singh N, Singh HK, Singh PP, Khan IA. Cocaine-induced torsades de pointes in idiopathic long Q-T syndrome. Am J Ther 2001; 8: 299–302
Salomon N, Perlman DC, Friedmann P, Ziluck V, Des Jarlais DC, et al. Prevalence and risk factors for positive tuberculin skin tests among active drug users at a syringe exchange program. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis 2000; 4: 47-54
Howard AA, Klein RS, Schoenbaum EE, Gourevitch MN. Crack cocaine use and other risk factors for tuberculin positivity in drug users. Clin Infect Dis 2002; 35: 1183-1190
Reichman LB, Felton CP, Edsall JR. Drug dependence, a possible new risk factor for tuberculosis disease. Arch Intern Med 1979; 139: 337-339
Markowitz N, Hansen NI, Hopewell PC, Glassroth J, Kvale PA, Mangura BT, et al. Incidence of tuberculosis in the United States among HIV-infected persons. The Pulmonary Complications of HIV Infection Study Group. Ann Intern Med 1997; 126: 123-132
Selwyn PA, Hartel D, Lewis VA, Schoenbaum EE, Vermund SH, Klein RS, et al. A prospective study of the risk of tuberculosis among intravenous drug users with human immunodeficiency virus infection. N Engl J Med 1989; 320: 545-550
Park DR, Sherbin VL, Goodman MS, Pacifico AD, Rubenfeld GD, Polissar NL, et al. The etiology of community-acquired pneumonia at an urban public hospital: influence of human immunodeficiency virus infection and initial severity of illness. J Infect Dis 2001; 184: 268-277
Boschini A, Smacchia C, Di Fine M, Schiesari A, Ballarini P, Arlotti M, et al. Community-acquired pneumonia in a cohort of former injection drug users with and without human immunodeficiency virus infection: incidence, etiologies, and clinical aspects. Clin Infect Dis 1996; 23: 107-113
Chaisson RE, Keruly J, Richman DD, Moore RD. Pneumocystis prophylaxis and survival in patients with advanced human immunodeficiency virus infection treated with zidovudine. Arch Int Med 1992; 152: 2009-2013
Schmidt RA, Glenny RW, Godwin JD, Hampson NB, Cantino ME, Reichenbach DD. Panlobular emphysema in young intravenous Ritalin abusers. Am Rev Respir Dis 1991; 143: 649-656
Perucci CA, Davoli M, Rapiti E, Abeni DD, Forastiere F. Mortality of intravenous drug users in Rome: a cohort study. Am J Public Health 1991; 81: 1307-1310
Taylor A, Fleming A, Rutherford J, Goldberg D. Examining the injecting practices of injecting drug users in Scotland. Edinburgh, Effective Interventions Unit: Scottish Executive Drug Misuse Research Programme; 2004
Lemberg BD, Shaw-Stiff el TA. Hepatic disease in injection drug users. Infect Dis Clin N Am 2002; 16: 667-679
Seal KH, Edlin BR. Risk of hepatitis B infection among young injection drug users in San Francisco: opportunities for intervention. West J Med 2000; 172: 16-20
Thiede H, Hagan H, Murrill CS. Methadone treatment and HIV and hepatitis B and C risk reduction among injectors in the Seattle area. J Urban Health 2000; 77: 331-345
Garfein RS, Vlahov D, Galai N, Doherty MC, Nelson KE, et al. Viral infections in short-term injection drug users: the prevalence of the hepatitis C, hepatitis B, human immunodeficiency, and human T - lymphotropic viruses. Am J Public Health 1996; 86: 655-661
Levine OS, Vlahov D, Koehler SC, Cohn S, Spronk AM, Nelson KE. Seroepidemiology of hepatitis B virus in a population of injecting drug users: association with drug injection patterns. Am J Epidemiol 1995; 142: 331-341
Alter MJ. Epidemiology of hepatitis C. Hepatology 1997; 26: 62S-65S
Sharara AI, Hunt CM, Hamilton JD. Hepatitis C. Ann Internal Med. 1996; 125: 658-668
Murrill CS, Weeks H, Castrucci BC, Weinstock HS, Bell BP, Spruill C, et al. Age-specific seroprevalence of HIV, hepatitis B virus, and hepatitis C virus infection among injection drug users admitted to drug treatment in 6 U.S. cities. Am J Public Health 2002; 92: 385-387
Garfein RS, Vlahov D, Galai N, Doherty MC, Nelson KE. Viral infections in short-term injection drug users: the prevalence of the hepatitis C, hepatitis B, human immunodeficiency, and human Tlymphotropic viruses. Am J Public Health 1996; 86: 655-661
Hagan H, Thiede H, Weiss NS, Hopkins SG, Duchin JS, Alexander ER. Sharing of drug preparation equipment as a risk factor for hepatitis C. Am J Public Health 2001; 91: 42-46
Thorpe LE, Ouellet LJ, Hershow R, Bailey SL, Williams IT, Williamson J, et al. Risk of hepatitis C virus infection among young adult injection drug users who share injection equipment. Am J Epidemiol 2002; 155:645-653
Lauer GM, Walker BD. Hepatitis C virus infection. N Engl J Med 2001; 345: 41-52
Lettau LA, McCarthy JG, Smith MH, Hadler SC, Morse LJ, Ukena T, et al. Outbreak of severe hepatitis due to delta and hepatitis B viruses in parenteral drug abusers and their contacts. N Engl J Med 1987;317: 1256-1262
Kao JH, Chen PJ, Lai MY, Chen DS. Hepatitis D virus genotypes in intravenous drug users in Taiwan: decreasing prevalence and lack of correlation with hepatitis B virus genotypes. J Clin Microbiol 2002;40: 3047-3049
Oliveira ML, Bastos FI, Telles PR, Yoshida CF, Schatzmayr HG, Paetzold U, et al. Prevalence and risk factors for HBV, HCV and HDV infections among injecting drug users from Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. Braz J Med Biol Res 1999; 32: 1107-1114
Coppola RC, Masia G, di Martino ML, Carboni G, Muggianu E, Piro R, et al. Sexual behaviour and multiple infections in drug abusers. Eur J Epidemiol 1996; 12: 429-435
Navascues CA, Rodriguez M, Sotorrio NG, Sala P, Linares A, Suarez A, Rodrigo L. Epidemiology of hepatitis D virus infection: changes in the last 14 years. Am J Gastroenterol 1995; 90: 1981-1984
Buti M, Mas A, Sanchez-Tapias JM, Esteban R, Bruguera M, Allende H, et al. Chronic hepatitis D in intravenous drug addicts and non-addicts. A comparative clinicopathological study. J Hepatol 1988; 7: 169-174
Muniz AE, Evans T. Acute gastrointestinal manifestations associated with use of crack. Am J Emerg Med 2001; 19: 61-63
Nzerue CM, Hewan-Lowe K, Riley LJ Jr. Cocaine and the kidney: a synthesis of pathophysiologic and clinical perspectives. Am J Kidney Dis 2000; 35: 783-795
Pogue VA, Nurse HM. Cocaine-associated acute myoglobinuric renal failure. Am J Med 1989; 86: 183-186
Richards JR, Johnson EB, Stark RW, Derlet RW. Methamphetamine abuse andrhabdomyolysis in the ED: a 5-year study. Am J Emerg Med 1999; 17: 681-685
Branc6s MA, Peris P, Mir6 JM, Monegal A, Gatell JM, Mallolas J, et al. Septic arthritis in heroin addicts. Semin Arthritis Rheum 1991; 21: 81-87
Brown SM, Stimmel B, Taub RN, Kochwa S, Rosenfield RE. Immunologic dysfunction in heroin addicts. Arch Int Med 1974; 134: 1001-1006
Cushman P, Grieco MH. Hyperimmunoglobulinemia associated with narcotic addiction: Effects of methadone maintenance treatment. Am J Med 1973; 54: 320-326
Kreek MJ, Dodes L, Kane S, Knobler J, Martin R. Long-term methadone maintenance therapy: effects on liver function. Ann Int Med 1972; 77: 598-602
Spiera M, Oreskes I, Stimmel B. Rheumatoid factor activity in heroin addicts on methadone maintenance. Annals of Rheumatoid factor activity in heroin addicts on methadone maintenance. Ann Rheum Dis 1974; 33: 153-156
Cushman P, Sherman C. Biologic false-positive reactions in serologic tests for syphilis in narcotic addiction. Am J Clin Pathol 1974;61:346-351
Novick DM, Ochshorn M, Ghali V, Croxson TS, Mercer WD, Chiorazzi N, et al. Natural killer cell activity and lymphocyte subsets in parenteral heroin abusers and long-term methadone maintenance patients. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 1989; 250: 606--610
HIV prevention strategic plan through 2005_Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). January 2001. Available at: http://www.cdc.gov/hiv/partners/PSP/How-Infected.htm
Srinivasan K, Chandramauli KS. Health Hazards of Long Term Alcohol, Opioid and Cannabis Use. In: Lal R, editor. Substance Use Disorder: Manual for Physicians. New Delhi: National Drug Dependence Treatment Center, AIIMS; 2005
Lyles CM, Dorrucci M, Vlahov D, Pezzotti P, Angarano G, Sinicco A, et al. Longitudinal human immunode¢ciency virus type 1 load in the italian seroconversion study: correlates and temporal trends of virus load. J Infect Dis 1999; 180: 1018-1024
Pezzotti P, Galai N, Vlahov D, Rezza G, Lyles CM, Astemborski J. Direct comparison of time to AIDS and infectious disease death between HIV seroconverter injection drug users in Italy and the United States: results from the ALIVE and ISS studies. AIDS Link to Intravenous Experiences. Italian Seroconversion Study. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 1999; 20: 275-282
Pezzotti P, Phillips AN, Dorrucci M, Lepri AC, Galai N, Vlahov D, et al. Category of exposure to HIV and age in the progression to AIDS: longitudinal study of 1199 people with known dates of seroconversion. HIV Italian Seroconversion Study Group. BMJ 1996; 313: 583-586
Mariotto AB, Mariotti S, Pezzotti P, Rezza G, Verdecchia A. Estimation of the acquired immunode¢ciency syndrome incubation period in intravenous drug users: a comparison with male homosexuals. Am J Epidemiol 1992; 135: 428-437
Sterling TR, Vlahov D, Astemborski J, Hoover DR, Margolick JB, Quinn TC. Initial plasma HIV-1 RNA levels and progression to AIDS in women and men. N Engl J Medicine 2001; 344:720-725
Farzadegan H, Hoover DR, Astemborski J, Lyles CM, Margolick JB, Markham RB, et al. Sex differences in HIV-1 viral load and progression to AIDS. Lancet 1998; 352:1510-1514
Cao Y, Qin L, Zhang L, Safrit J, Ho DD. Virologic and immunologic characterization of long-term survivors of human immunode¢ciency virus type 1 infection. New Engl J Medicine 1995; 332: 201-208
Petrucci A, Dorrucci M, Alliegro MB, Pezzotti P, Rezza G, Sinicco A, et al. How many HIV-infected individuals may be de¢ned as long-termnonprogressors? A report from the Italian Seroconversion Study. Italian Seroconversion Study Group (ISS). J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 1997; 14: 243-248
NIH. Consensus Development Conference statement: Interventions to prevent HIV risk behaviors. Bethesda, MD: National Institutes of Health; 1997. Available at: http://consensus.nih.gov/cons/104/104statement.htm
Hjelle B, Zhu SW, Takahashi H, Ijichi S, Hall WW. Endemic human T cell leukemia virus type II infection in southwestern US Indians involves two prototype variants of virus. J Infect Dis 1993; 168:737-740
Moreira ED, Jr Ribeiro TT, Swanson P, Sampaio FC, Melo A, Brites C, et al. Seroepidemiology of human T-cell lymphotropic virus type 1/11 in northeastern Brazil. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 1993; 6:959-963
Vignoli C, Zandotti C, De Lamballerie X, Tamalet C, Gastaut JA, De Micco P. Prevalence of HTLV -II in HIV-I-Infected drug addicts in Marseille (Letter). Eur J Epidemiol 1993; 9: 351-352
Zeldis JB, Jain S, Kuramoto IK, Richards C, Sazama K, Samuels S, et al. Seroepidemiology of viral infections among intravenous drug users in northern California. West J Med 1992; 156: 30-35
Klimas NG, Page JB, Patarca R, Chitwood D, Morgan R. Effects of retroviral infections on immune function in African American intravenous drug users. AIDS 1993; 7: 331-335
Hollsberg P, Hafter DA. Pathogenesis of diseases induced by human lymphotropic virus type I infection. New Engl J Med 1993; 328: 1173-1182
Selwyn PA, Feingold A, Hartel D, Schoenbaum EE, Alderman MH, Klein RS. Increased risk of bacterial pneumonia in HIV -infected intravenous drug users without AIDS. AIDS 1988; 2: 267-272
Stoneburner RL, Des Jarlis DC, Benezra D, Gorelkin L, Sotheran JL, Friedman SR, et al. A larger spectrum of severe HIV- I related disease in intravenous drug users in New York City. Science 1988; 242:916--919
Selwyn PA, Hartel D, Wasserman W, Drucker E. Impact of the AIDS epidemic on morbidity and mortality among intravenous drug users in a New York City methadone maintenance program. American Journal of Public Health 1989; 79: 1358-1362
Cameron ML, Bartlett JA, Gallis HA, Waskin HA. Manifestations of pulmonary cryptococcosis in patients with acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. Reviews oflnfectious Diseases 1991; 13: 64-67
Johnson PC, Khardori N, Najjar AF, Butt F, Mansell PW, Sarosi GA. Progressive disseminated histoplasmosis in patients with acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. The American Journal of Medicine 1988; 85: 152-158
Sarosi GA, Johnson PC. Disseminated histoplasmosis in patients infected with human immunodeficiency virus. Clinical Infectious Diseases 1992; 14: S60-S67
Wheat LJ, Connolly-Stringfield PA, Baker RL, Curfman MF, Eads ME, Israel KS. Disseminated histoplasmosis in the acquired immune deficiency syndrome: Clinical findings, diagnosis and treatment, and review of the literature. Medicine 1990; 69: 361-374
Spence MR, Abrutyn E. Syphilis and infection with the human immunodeficiency virus. Ann Intern Med 1987; 107: 587
Holtom PD, Larsen RA, Leal ME, Leedom JM. Prevalence of neurosyphilis in human immunodeficiency virus-infected patients with latent syphilis. Am J Med 1992; 93: 9-12
Haverkos HW. Infectious diseases and drug abuse. Prevention and treatment in the drug abuse treatment system. J Subst Abuse Treat. 1991; 8: 269-275
Connor EM, Sperling RS, Gelber R, Kiselev P, Scott G, O'Sullivan MJ, et al. Reduction of maternal-infant transmission of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 with zidovudine treatment. N Engl J Med 1994; 331: 1173-1180
Warner-Smith M, Darke S, Lynskey M, Hall W. Heroin overdose: causes and consequences. Addiction 2001; 96: 1113-1125
Hickman M, Camwath Z, Madden P, Farrell M, Rooney C, Ashcroft R, et al. Drug-related mortality and fatal overdose risk: pilot cohort study of heroin users recruited from specialist drug treatment sites in London. J Urban Health 2003; 80: 274-287
Brugal MT, Domingo-Salvany A, Puig R, Barrio G, Garcia de Olalla P, de la Fuente L. Evaluating the impact of methadone maintenance programmes on mortality due to overdose and AIDS in a cohort of heroin users in Spain. Addiction 2005; 100: 981-989
van Ameijden EJC, Langendam MW, Coutinho RA. Dose-effect relationship between overdose mortality and prescribed methadone dosage in low-threshold maintenance programs. Addict Behav 1999; 24:559-563
Langendam MW, van Brussel GHA, Coutinho RA, Van Ameijden EJC. The impact of harm-reduction-based methadone treatment on mortality among heroin users. Am J Public Health 2001; 91: 774-780
Stoove MA, Dietze PM, Aitken CK, Jolley D. Mortality among injecting drug users in Melbourne: A 16-year follow-up of the Victorian Injecting Cohort Study (VICS). Drug Alcohol Depend 2008; 96: 281–285
